Iota forms soft gels in the presence of calcium ions. It is produced mainly from Eucheuma denticulatum. [10]

et al., An Infant Formula Toxicity and Toxicokinetic Feeding Study on Carrageenan in Preweaning Piglets with Special Attention to the Immune System and Gastrointestinal Tract, Food Chem. Toxicol., 2015, 77, 120–131 CrossRef CAS PubMed. MAH forms maleic acid and esters when dissolved in water and ethanol, respectively, thus creating a mixture in the reaction [ 23]. Previous studies mostly focused on the reaction of MAH with starch and rarely on the reaction of MAH with κCar. Zuo et al. [ 10] reported that MAH modification for starch occurs mainly in the amorphous region of the granule with the maximum degree of substitution (DS) of 0.3386. The availability of -OH groups at C-2, C-3, and C-6 (glucose unit, Mw 162) renders native starch reactive for substitution [ 24]. κCar consists of alternating (1→3)-β- d-galactose-4-sulfate and (1→4)-3,6-anhydro-α- d-galactose residues joined in a linear chain, in which the available -OH groups possess different reactivities for esterification [ 1]. Similar to starch, κCar has an extremely high water-absorbing capacity to react easily. However, κCar has no crystalline region, which means that the water-absorbing capacity of κCar is higher than that of starch. Therefore, κCar has less reactivity than starch, leading to a lower DS. Gel strength is also an important index for κCar. High gel strength is not always the most desirable quality for κCar. However, low strength bestows the product with a stable structure and soft elastic characteristics. κCar with low gel strength has potential uses in liquid food, spread food, soft-texture confectionery, fat replacers, and new industrial applications, and can also serve as a cryoprotectant to minimize the damage of freezing–thawing [ 25, 26]. Thus, the effects of five factors on the DS and gel strength of MC were studied.

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The most common red seaweed used for manufacturing carrageenan is Chondrus crispus, which grows along the northern part of the Atlantic. Estevez JM, Ciancia M, Cerezo AS (2000) The system of low-molecular-weight carrageenans and agaroids from the room-temperature-extracted fraction of Kappaphycus alvarezii. Carbohydr Res 325:287–299 Asni A. (2021). Analysis on carrageenan content of seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii at different water condition in Bantaeng District. IOP Conf. Series Earth Environ. Sci. 860:012069. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/860/1/012069 [ CrossRef] [ Google Scholar]

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Carrageenan has established itself as a polysaccharide with numerous applications ranging from food to pharmaceuticals. Carrageenan is primarily derived from the red algae K. alvarezii, which is the commercial variety of choice due to its rapid growth and low production cost in tropical coastal waters around the world. Carrageenan is synthesized through a series of complex biochemical pathways primarily catalyzed by sulfotransferases and galactosyltransferases and their derivate enzymes. Carrageenan’s chemical and rheological properties are altered by the addition of sulfate ester groups and anhydrogalactose, which alters its gelling and viscosity properties. Because of its desirable gelling properties, κ-carrageenan is particularly useful for industrial purposes. Carrageenan can be extracted using strong alkalies or through enzymatic hydrolysis with cellulases; however, the latter method is not currently commercially viable in an industrial setting. The production of Kappaphycus seaweeds is influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors, and the emergence of new pathogens is cause for concern, emphasizing the importance of disease-tolerant strain selection. Global warming and climate change have been shown to have a direct effect on ocean acidity, while eutrophication caused by terrestrial runoff has also been shown to have a direct effect on productivity. Aside from carrageenan, research is becoming increasingly important for identifying clinically important biomolecules as potential substitutes for current pharmaceutical drugs. The emergence of the oceans as the next frontier in agriculture will ensure that carragenophytes remain on the scientific horizon as an economically and environmentally viable option for humanity’s future. Author Contributions Siegner, C. (2016,November 18). Board nixes use of carrageenan in organic food population.Retrieved from

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Impact Investment for a Business Venture for Community-Based Seaweed Farming in Northern Palawan, Philippines (PDF). Blue Economy Impact Investment East Asia & Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia. 2017 . Retrieved 8 February 2021. In the UK, the Food Standards Agency issued a product recall for sweets containing carrageenan, stating that carrageenan "is not permitted as an ingredient in jelly confectionery products as it presents a choking hazard". [31] Toxicity research [ edit ] Antonopoulos A., Favetta P., Helbert W., Lafosse M. (2005). On-line liquid chromatography electrospray ionization mass spectrometry for the characterization of κ- and ι-carrageenans. Application to the hybrid ι−/υ-carrageenans. Anal. Chem. 77, 4125–4136. doi: 10.1021/ac050091o, PMID: [ PubMed] [ CrossRef] [ Google Scholar] After harvest, the seaweed is dried, baled, and sent to the carrageenan manufacturer. There the seaweed is ground, sifted to remove impurities such as sand, and washed thoroughly. After treatment with hot alkali solution (e.g., 5–8% potassium hydroxide), the cellulose is removed from the carrageenan by centrifugation and filtration. The resulting carrageenan solution is then concentrated by evaporation. It is dried and ground to specification. Extracted from red seaweeds, carrageenans are naturally occurring polysaccharides that provide gelation, viscosity, and structure to a variety of food applications.