Visual Assessment of Rivers and Marshes: an Examination of the Relationship of Visual Units, Perceptual Variables, and Preference Mycobacterium vaccae is an aerobic, temperate bacterium to which we are exposed in water, soil, and vegetation [ 337, 338, 339]. As an aerobe, it does not colonize the intestinal tract, but is considered a “transient commensal” [ 340]. It is believed that M. vaccae alters serotonin levels, affecting mood, arousal, and learning [ 341, 342], and in mice, it lowered maze run times, mistakes, and anxiety behaviors [ 311]. This effect was temporary, only affecting the mice while the bacteria was in their system. Spending time in nature can act as a balm for our busy brains. Both correlational and experimental research have shown that interacting with nature has cognitive benefits—a topic University of Chicago psychologist Marc Berman, PhD, and his student Kathryn Schertz explored in a 2019 review. They reported, for instance, that green spaces near schools promote cognitive development in children and green views near children’s homes promote self-control behaviors. Adults assigned to public housing units in neighborhoods with more green space showed better attentional functioning than those assigned to units with less access to natural environments. And experiments have found that being exposed to natural environments improves working memory, cognitive flexibility and attentional control, while exposure to urban environments is linked to attention deficits ( Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 28, No. 5, 2019). There is mounting evidence, from dozens and dozens of researchers, that nature has benefits for both physical and psychological human well­being,” says Lisa Nisbet, PhD, a psychologist at Trent University in Ontario, Canada, who studies connectedness to nature. “You can boost your mood just by walking in nature, even in urban nature. And the sense of connection you have with the natural world seems to contribute to happiness even when you’re not physically immersed in nature.” Cognitive benefits World Commission on Environment and Development Our Common Future (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, 1987).

Researchers have proposed a number of ideas to explain such findings, as Nisbet and colleagues described in a review of the benefits of connection with nature (Capaldi, C.A., et al., International Journal of Wellbeing, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2015). The biophilia hypothesis argues that since our ancestors evolved in wild settings and relied on the environment for survival, we have an innate drive to connect with nature. The stress reduction hypothesis posits that spending time in nature triggers a physiological response that lowers stress levels. A third idea, attention restoration theory, holds that nature replenishes one’s cognitive resources, restoring the ability to concentrate and pay attention. Many benefits that people receive from nature accrue through the five senses as well as at least three non-sensory avenues: sight, sound, smell, taste, touch, phytoncides, negative air ions, and microbes. Most research focuses on the visual nature benefits, and we have briefly reviewed this as well as examining the other pathways through which nature benefits are delivered, concluding that there is a need to broaden work beyond merely the visual sense and to take some experimental studies into the field. The idea that nature provides benefits beyond the visual has been touched on in the literature looking at some mood benefits derived from feeling connected to nature; this suggests that feeling connected to nature is enough to provide some psychological benefits [ 346, 347]. We do not explore this at length here, but this alternate route should not be overlooked. Additionally, there is clear evidence of the benefits of exercising in greenspace or in simulated nature beyond that of exercising in other environments, implying that there may be another pathway involved here, although we do not yet know whether this is through the senses [ 348, 349, 350].Sterman, J. D. Risk communication on climate: mental models and mass balance. Science 322, 532–533 (2008). Nature might also make us nicer—to other people as well as to the planet. John Zelenski, PhD, a professor of psychology at Carleton University in Ontario, Canada, and colleagues showed undergraduates either nature documentaries or videos about architectural landmarks. Then the participants played a fishing game in which they made decisions about how many fish to harvest across multiple seasons. Those who had watched the nature video were more likely to cooperate with other players, and also more likely to make choices that would sustain the fish population ( Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 42, No. 1, 2015). In another experiment, Zelenski and his colleagues found that elementary school children acted more prosocially to classmates and strangers after a field trip to a nature school than they did after a visit to an aviation museum (Dopko, R.L., et al., Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 63, No. 1, 2019). The experience of awe goes beyond making us feel good, it helps us to connect with others and has health benefits: This paper is intended to be a narrative review of disparate literature designed to provide a reference for wider reading rather than to provide a systematic review of the evidence. As such, no systematic search or synthesis has been attempted and instead, a number of search terms were used and anything considered relevant to senses and nature benefits was included. Multiple study designs were included, as well as research on animals in addition to humans. Some search term examples, for sound, included “sound”, “noise”, “nature benefit”, “wellness”, “health”, “wellbeing”, with similar searches for the other senses. When relevant articles were found, a snowballing method was utilized, searching their references for further relevant articles. In some instances where very few results were found, we included preference studies as well as correlational studies where the effects of possible confounding variables could not be assessed.

In addition to the nutritional value of foods, we ingest a number of microorganisms with our food or directly from the environment, such as from soil. Some of these microorganisms persist as fauna within the gut with a number of beneficial effects. Humans coevolved with microbes for over 500 million years [ 307, 308], and this has led to a symbiotic relationship, wherein bidirectional neuronal, hormonal, and immunological signals are exchanged between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain [ 309]. Saprophytic (soil) bacteria are commonly found in the gut, and while they cannot replicate there, were present in our ancestors due to exposure through mud and water [ 310]. Repeated exposure to these organisms was found to lead to a tolerance response to stress [ 311], and indeed continued exposure to environmental organisms is necessary to maintain the diversity of gut microbiota [ 312]. Biophilic design could be summed up into 3 main categories; each category encompasses some patterns. The main categories are as follows: nature in the space, natural analogues, and nature of the space [ 10].Another recent study found that people who are more naturally prone to experiencing awe felt more humility and were rated as more humble by their friends. Yet policymakers, city planners, environmental organizations and government agencies are coming around to the importance of natural spaces, and psychologists are offering them their expertise, says White, who has presented his research to groups such as the U.K.’s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Organizations and cities are expressing interest in this research, Zelenski says, though many policymakers are waiting to see the results of intervention studies before investing in green infrastructure. One of the United Nations’ sustainable development goals includes the target of providing universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible green and public spaces by 2030. Biophilia as a concept promoted the idea that connection with nature plays an essential role in physical and mental health, and this has been proven in many studies [ 16, 29] In modern society, it also plays a significant role in social and family relationships [ 30]. It is also useful in highly dense urban areas office workers [ 31] and helps in stress reduction for university students and staff [ 32]. Furthermore, a study proved the inherent psychological and physiological link between humans and nature and evaluated the research supporting the social, environmental, and economic benefits of biophilia [ 33].

As in the case of rotten meat and the disgust response to the smell, smells can provide us with useful information about the environment, or specific resources or organisms within it. In a study on humans, it was found that men and women could identify whether individuals were happy or fearful based on odor pads used to collect their sweat [ 101]. Natural odors from plants and animals such as floral fragrance and musk, are indicative of metabolism and physiological function [ 102], so smells can tell us about the state of possible food. This book presents a long career of research of the Kaplans on what was then a budding field of environmental psychology as they aim to discover why natural environments are healthy for the psyche and which characteristics of natural scenery are most appealing. IPCC Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (eds Parry, M. L. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 2007). In another study, participants who recalled an awe experience placed less value on money than did participants who recalled a happy or neutral experience, and viewing awe-inducing images reduced the effort people were willing to put into getting money (where effort was measured by tolerance for listening to an unpleasant sound). Sternberg, E. (2009). Healing spaces: The Science of Place and Well-Being. London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University PressThe last category Nature of the Space includes all spatial aspects which can be found in nature and it expresses our desire to see things above and beyond our instant surroundings, and explore the unknown in a safe manner. A strong experience is achieved by: deliberate and engaging spatial arrangements, combined with patterns from the two other categories: Nature in the Space and Natural Analogues. This category consists of four biophilic design patterns, they are prospect, refuge, mystery, and risk/peril [ 10]. Later, in 2015, the principles of biophilic design were introduced in the book ‘The Practice of Biophilic Design’ [ 38]. These principles were repeated engagement with nature, focusing on human adaptations to the natural world, encouraging emotional attachment to specific places, promoting positive interactions between people and nature, and encouraging interconnected and incorporated architecture solutions. Also, the experience of nature was grouped into three types: direct experience of nature, indirect experience of nature, and the experience of space and place [ 38]. Categories and patterns of biophilic design In her book The Nature Fix, Florence Williams describes this as ‘Scale Induced Awe’. She describes how awe promotes curiosity when what we see is outside of our usual frame of reference, or see things that we cannot easily categorise or understand, and consequently they often get seared into our memory. The natural environment is increasingly a source of interest, fascination, and affection. In a wide range of settings, both at home and abroad, I have found the breadth and intensity of such feelings to be remarkable. Yet until now there has been little material available for individuals who are attempting to understand their feelings toward nature. Though much has been written on this subject, there remains a need for a comprehensive work that is scientifically based, readable, and helpful.

Beatley T (2017b) Biophilic cities and healthy societies. Urban Plann 2(4):1–4. https://doi.org/10.17645/up.v2i4.1054 Perrings, C., Duraiappah, A., Larigauderie, A. & Mooney, H. The biodiversity and ecosystem services science-policy interface. Science 331, 1139–1140 (2011). Park, J., Conca, K. & Finger, M. The Crisis of Global Environmental Governance: Towards a New Political Economy of Sustainability (Routledge, London, 2008). We define nature in a broad sense as “the phenomena of the physical world collectively, including plants, animals, the landscape, and other features and products of the earth, as opposed to humans or human creations” [ 15]. We consider nature to include phenomena as varied as landscapes, microorganisms, and pets, and we also include nature simulations. We consider health as “the state of being free from illness or injury”, and as a statement about one’s mental or physical condition [ 15]. Finally, we define wellbeing as “the state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy” [ 15], and including self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, autonomy, and positive relations with others [ 16]. It further includes the important domains of mental well-being, social well-being, physical well-being, spiritual well-being, activities and functioning, and personal circumstances [ 17]. Therefore wellbeing is a very broad category encompassing concepts as varied as “freedom from noise” and “memory recall”.Larigauderie, A. & Mooney, H. A. The intergovernmental science-policy platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services: moving a step closer to an IPCC-like mechanism for biodiversity. Curr. Opin. Env. Sustain. 2, 9–14 (2010).