Horowitz, Alexandra (2009). Inside of a Dog: What Dogs See, Smell, and Know. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 9781416583400. OCLC 973655798. Inside of a Dog: What Dogs See, Smell, and Know at Google Books.

You will find a deep fossa (intercondyloid fossa) between the dog femur’s lateral and medial condyles (caudally). In addition, the trochlea of the femur possesses a cranial smooth, articular groove or surface for the patella. Dogs have a skeletal system. However, dogs don’t have a collar bone, unlike humans; providing a larger stride for running. Again, the radial and olecranon fossae communicate through the supratrochlear foramen. You will find two epicondyles (lateral and medial) at the distal end of the dog humerus. Transverse superficial pectoral: originates on the second and third sternebrae and inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus. It also adducts the limb and prevents the limb from being abducted during weight bearing. It is innervated by the cranial pectoral nerves. The main function of the skull in dogs and humans alike is to protect the brain. The interesting thing about dog’s skulls is that they can be different shapes and sizes.Acetabulum: A large articulation area with the head of the femur, and divided into Acetabular fossa, Lunatesurface. Sometimes, you will find a laterally compressed cone structure at the distal part of the distal phalanx of the dog. This is the ungula process that is shielded by a claw. Bones of dog pelvic limb

Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallest known adult dog was a Yorkshire Terrier that stood only 6.3cm (2.5in) at the shoulder, 9.5cm (3.7in) in length along the head and body, and weighed only 113 grams (4.0oz). The largest known adult dog was an English Mastiff which weighed 155.6kg (343lb). [2] The tallest known adult dog is a Great Dane that stands 106.7cm (42.0in) at the shoulder. [3] Dolichocephalic breeds are less likely to engage in play but they are also less easily startled and appear to be more resilient in stressful situations. The first tarsal bone of a dog hind paw varies significantly in the different breeds. The second tarsal (smallest tarsus) articulates with the central tarsus proximally and the third tarsal distally. Again, the third tarsal bone of a dog is three times larger and two times longer than the second tarsal bone. In addition, the fourth tarsus is as long as the combined dimensions of the central and third tarsal. The metatarsal bone of a dogMedial Epicondyle: Located medial side of the condyle for the attachment of medial collateral ligament and flexors of the carpus and digits. Functionally called flexor epicondyle. Like most predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance and teeth for catching, holding, and tearing. The dog's muzzle size will vary with the breed. Dogs with medium muzzles, such as the German Shepherd Dog, are called mesocephalic and dogs with a pushed in muzzle, such as the Pug, are called brachycephalic. Today's toy breeds have skeletons that mature in only a few months, while giant breeds, such as the Mastiffs, take 16 to 18 months for the skeleton to mature. Dwarfism has affected the proportions of some breeds' skeletons, as in the Basset Hound. Neutering in males removes both testicles so they are unable to produce sperm or testosterone. Spaying female dogs removes their ovaries and uterus, rendering her unable to become pregnant. Neutering is generally tolerated well with few long term side effects. Summary The segments and bones of the thoracic limb – scapula, humerus, radius – ulna, carpal, metacarpal, and phalanx

Paw pads are crucial for cushioning of the bones, providing traction and abrasion resistance. If there is trauma or injury to any one of the pads, it can often result in loss of limb function. This makes us want to learn more about the anatomy of our four-legged friends. For that reason, we have put together a handy guide with some interesting facts and diagrams. Dog Skeleton Anatomy Dog Skeleton Anatomy With the large range of breeds and dog sizes, despite their difference in appearance, it might be surprising to hear dog anatomy is generally the same with regards to physical anatomy and characteristics. Again, the spine of the dog scapula forms the supraspinous and infraspinous fossa at the lateral surface. The supraspinous fossa is the widest in the middle of a dog. In addition, the infraspinous fossa of the dog scapula is triangular in shape and well defined. Ischiatic Tuberosity: Laterally projecting process of the ischium used for the attachment of anatomical structures such as sacrotuberous ligament, biceps femoris, semitendinosus and semimemranosus muscles.Okay, first, let’s know some of the essential osteological features of the dog hip bones. Then we will learn the details of the ilium, ischium, and pubis bones in details. In addition, the leg of a dog consists of tibia and fibula bones. The hind paw or pes includes the tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges of the digits, and their associated sesamoid bones. The dog ilium is the most significant and cranial part of the hip bone. You will find the laterally concave wing and a narrow, more irregular body. The body of the dog ilium bone is expanded on its caudal end. Fine, let’s enlist some important osteological features of a scapula from dog skeleton anatomy. But, make sure you have a good piece of knowledge on the ideal structure of animal scapula. If you want, you may read this article (cow scapula) to get a basic idea of the structures of the animal scapula. The dog's visual system has evolved to aid proficient hunting. [24] While a dog's visual acuity is poor (that of a poodle's has been estimated to translate to a Snellen rating of 20/75 [24]), their visual discrimination for moving objects is very high. Dogs have been shown to be able to discriminate between humans (e.g. identifying their human guardian) at a range of between 800 and 900 metres (2,600 and 3,000ft); however, this range decreases to 500–600 metres (1,600–2,000ft) if the object is stationary. [24]