The sequence of the cacao genome identified 28,798 protein-coding genes, compared to the roughly 23,000 protein-coding genes of the human genome. About 20% of the cacao genome consists of transposable elements, a low proportion compared to other plant species. Many genes were identified as coding for flavonoids, aromatic terpenes, theobromine and many other metabolites involved in cocoa flavor and quality traits, among which a relatively high proportion code for polyphenols, which constitute up to 8% of cacao pods dry weight. The cacao genome appears close to the hypothetical hexaploid ancestor of all dicotyledonous plants, [32] and it is proposed as an evolutionary mechanism by which the 21 chromosomes of the dicots' hypothetical hexaploid ancestor underwent major fusions leading to cacao's 10 chromosome pairs. Ruf F (2012) Cocoa smallholders and professionalism: Management of land, labour and fertilizers in Côte d’Ivoire. Paper presented at the ICCO - world cocoa conference, Abidjan, 19–23 Nov 2012 Pédelahore, Philippe (2014). "Farmers Accumulation Strategies and Agroforestry Systems Intensification: The Example of Cocoa in the Central Region of Cameroon over the 1910–2010 Period". Agroforestry Systems. 88 (6): 1157–1166. doi: 10.1007/s10457-014-9675-8. S2CID 18228052.

Jadin P, Truong B (1987) Efficacité de deux phosphates naturels tricalciques dans deux sols ferrallitiques acides du Gabon. Café Cacao Thé 31(4):291–302 Ronse De Craene, Louis P. (4 February 2010). Floral Diagrams: An Aid to Understanding Flower Morphology and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.224. ISBN 978-0-521-49346-8. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021 . Retrieved 16 September 2017. The reason for the inversion of the letters " o" and " a" in the borrowing from the Spanish " cacao" to the English "cocoa" is unknown, Ribeiro MAQ, da Silva JO, Aitken WM, Machado RCR, Baligar VC (2008) Nitrogen use efficiency in cacao genotypes. J Plant Nutr 31(2):239–249 Lachenaud P (1991) Facteurs de la fructification chez le cacaoyer ( Theobroma cacao L.): influence sur le nombre de graines par fruit. Paris-Grignon, Paris, p 186

The generic name Theobroma is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός ( theos), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα ( broma), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal, Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of the cocoa-tree". [10] Taxonomy [ edit ]

Bastide P, Cilas C, jimmy I (2003) Variability of leaf parameters in the foliage of cocoa trees in Vanuatu. Paper presented at the 14th international cocoa research conference, Lagos Wyrley-Birch EA (1987) Results of cocoa agronomy trials in Sabah, Malaysia from 1964 to 1977. Department of Agriculture, Sabah, 181 p While governments and NGOs have made efforts to help cocoa farmers in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire sustainably improve crop yields, many of the educational and financial resources provided are more readily available to male farmers versus female farmers. Access to credit is important for cocoa farmers, as it allows them to implement sustainable practices, such as agroforestry, and provide a financial buffer in case disasters like pest or weather patterns decrease crop yield. [76] Kaufman, Terrence; Justeson, John (2006). "History of the Word for 'Cacao' and Related Terms in Ancient Meso-America". In Cameron L. McNeil (ed.). Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A Cultural History of Cacao. University Press of Florida. p.121. ISBN 978-0-8130-3382-2.

Viroux R, Jadin P (1993) Recherche d’une démarche pour une fertilisation minérale des cacaoyers en milieu rural. Café Cacao Thé 37(2):121–128 Theobroma cacao ( cacao tree or cocoa tree) is a small (6–12m (20–39ft) tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae. [1] [3] Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate. [4] Native to the tropics of the Americas, the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2018 was Ivory Coast, at 2.2 million tons. Its leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10–50cm (4–20in) long and 5–10cm (2–4in) broad. a b Raghavan, Sudarsan; Chatterjee, Sumana (24 June 2001). "Slaves feed world's taste for chocolate: Captives common in cocoa farms of Africa". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original on 17 September 2006 . Retrieved 25 April 2012.

Coe, Sophie D. (1994). America's First Cuisines. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71155-7. Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. [19] The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish: 'cacao of Chuao'). [20] Roberto Ochoa (19 November 2017). "Jaén y la cultura Marañón". Lima: Domingo semanal (La República). Archived from the original on 7 May 2018 . Retrieved 8 October 2018. Alvim PdT, Alvim R (1980) Environmental requirements of cocoa with emphasis on responses to shade and moisture stress. Paper presented at the international conference on cocoa and coconuts: The Incorporated Society of Planters, Kuala, Lumpur, Malaysia Flavonoids, flavan-3-ols, and their oligomeric derivatives, procyanidins, have a variety of beneficial physiologic actions. Flavonoids have a number of properties that may contribute to their cardioprotective effects, including antioxidant and antiplatelet activity, immunoregulatory properties, and beneficial effects on the endothelium ( 42). The epicatechin content of cocoa is primarily responsible for its favorable impact on vascular endothelium, which is the result of both acute and chronic upregulation of nitric oxide production ( 222, 277). The combined catechin/epicatechin content in chocolate is 460–610mg/kg ( 150). Epicatechins improve vascular function, reduce BP, improve insulin sensitivity, and reduce platelet activity ( 42). Epicatechin in cocoa quenches OH· 100 times more effectively than mannitol, a typical OH· scavenger ( 239).Balasimha D, Daniel EV, Bhat PG (1991) Influence of environmental factors on photosynthesis in cocoa trees. Agric For Meteorol 55(1–2):15–21. doi: 10.1016/0168-1923(91)90019-M A strategy to safeguard the future of chocolate". Bioversity International. Archived from the original on 14 April 2013 . Retrieved 9 November 2012. Roasted nibs (pieces of kernels) are generally powdered and melted into chocolate liquor, but also inserted into chocolate bars to give additional "crunch". The COSA Measuring Sustainability Report – COSA". Committee on Sustainability Assessment. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States . Retrieved 27 June 2022. Henderson, J. S.; etal. (2007). "Chemical and archaeological evidence for the earliest cacao beverages". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (48): 18937–18940. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0708815104. PMC 2141886. PMID 18024588.

Monsy, Karen Ann (24 February 2012). "The bitter truth". Khaleej Times. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012 . Retrieved 28 April 2012. Verlière G (1981). Etude par la méthode du diagnosis foliaire de la fertilization et de la nutrition minérale du cacaoyer ( Theobroma cacao L.) en Côte d’Ivoire. Cahiers de l’ORSTOM, Paris (France), 256 p. ISBN 2-7099-0602-3 In 2010, Buijsse and colleagues released results from the first cohort study to demonstrate a reduced risk of myocardial infarction and stroke associated with chocolate consumption ( 30). The study followed 19,357 men and women in Germany over a mean of 8 years. Compared with the bottom quartile of chocolate consumption, those in the highest quartile had a 39% reduced risk of myocardial infarction or stroke ( p=0.014). The highest quartile reported a mean chocolate intake of 7.5g/day. The food frequency questionnaire used in this study did not distinguish between white, milk, and dark chocolate. However, a more deCunningham RK, Burridge JC (1960) The growth of cacao ( Theobroma cacao) with and without shade. Ann Bot, NS 24(96):458–462 Cacao analysis dates the dawn of domesticated chocolate trees to 3,600 years ago", Eurekalert, October 24, 2018". Archived from the original on 24 October 2018 . Retrieved 24 October 2018. Jaillon, Olivier; Aury, Jean-Marc; Noel, Benjamin; Policriti, Alberto; Clepet, Christian; Casagrande, Alberto; etal. (2007). "The grapevine genome sequence suggests ancestral hexaploidization in major angiosperm phyla". Nature. 449 (7161): 463–467. Bibcode: 2007Natur.449..463J. doi: 10.1038/nature06148. PMID 17721507. Many major chocolate production companies around the world have started to prioritize buying fair trade cocoa by investing in fair trade cocoa production, improving fair trade cocoa supply chains and setting purchasing goals to increase the proportion of fair trade chocolate available in the global market. [69] [70] [71] [72] [73]