Co-parenting is commonly characterized by cooperation, support, sharing of responsibilities, and agreement between parents on child rearing issues ( Teubert and Pinquart, 2010). In this study, we extend the definition of co-parenting by adding consistency in parental behaviors. Specifically, we define three types of co-parenting consistency based on four categorizations of paternal and maternal parenting considering its potential impact on child outcomes. The first type is positive coparenting in which both mothers and fathers show the most adaptive level of coordination by simultaneously adopting ideal parenting behaviors. For instance, both parents show high levels of emotional warmth or low levels of rejection in this type. As the optimal type, positive co-parenting is assumed to improve child functioning and promote favorable child outcomes. The second one is negative coparenting in which both parents simultaneously adopt dysfunctional parenting behaviors or understate adaptive parenting practices. For instance, both parents show low emotional warmth and high rejection behaviors. The final type is inconsistent coparenting in which parents adopt discrepant levels of the same parenting behaviors as one parent is showing high and the other one is showing low levels of the same parenting behavior. These parents may not be motivated to act synchronized or, conversely, overdue the role of the other parental figure within the family. Simons, L. G., & Conger, R. D. (2007). Linking mother–father differences in parenting to a typology of family parenting styles and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 212–241. doi: 10.1177/0192513X06294593. Markazi, L., & Badrigargari, R. (2011). The role of parenting self-efficacy and parenting styles on self-regulation learning in adolescent girls of Tabriz. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 1758–1760. She had just finished her speech that she had memorized by heart. It was difficult to memorize at first, but when she thought about her mother’s everyday difficulties and sacrifices, she toughened up and constantly practiced her speech for this very day.

Guay, F., Ratelle, C., Larose, S., Vallerand, R. J., & Vitaro, F. (2013). The number of autonomy-supportive relationships: are more relationships better for motivation, perceived competence, and achievement? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(4), 375–382.When she explained that her mother had attempted to drown her as a filly, I cried. Not for myself, but for her. Her mother drowned her out of rage because my mom held the attention of her father which her mother wanted so much. Chen, X., Liu, M., & Li, D. (2000). Parental warmth, control, and indulgence and their relations to adjustment in Chinese children. A longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 401–419. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.14.3.401. The aim of this study was twofold. First, we examined the unique role of fathers’ parenting behaviors in girls’ and boys’ academic self-efficacy in math and literature courses. We specifically focused on common (i.e., parental intrusion and guilt induction) and universal (i.e., emotional warmth and rejection) parenting behaviors. Overall, we expected that parental warmth positively predicts but rejection, intrusion, and guilt induction negatively predict literature and math self-efficacy. The effect of paternal parenting behaviors remains significant over and beyond the effect of matched maternal parenting behaviors. Second, we investigated the effect of co-parenting quality on girls’ and boys’ levels of academic self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy was expected to differ according to the quality of perceived co-parenting behaviors. We specifically proposed that positive co-parenting behaviors are related to highest levels of academic self-efficacy, and that negative co-parenting behaviors are related to lowest levels of academic self-efficacy in both literature and math courses. Effects of inconsistent co-parenting behaviors were expected to fall in between these two ends. On the one hand, this effect would be similar to positive co-parenting if an inconsistency compensatory effect exists. Considering gender-based parenting roles (i.e., nurturing mothers and controlling fathers) in Turkish culture, we expected that compensatory effects would particularly be seen for culture-common parenting dimensions. On the other hand, it would be similar to negative co-parenting if an inconsistency deterioration effect exists. We expected that deterioration effects would be more likely for universal parenting dimensions given that they refer to the value of the child in the family (i.e., parental warmth has positive and rejection has negative effects regardless of cultural variation and parent’s gender). Finally, although we did not have specific hypotheses or test the interaction effect between parent’s or child’s gender and outcome variables, we still expected to observe a joint effect. That is, there would be father compensatory or deterioration effects on boys’ math self-efficacy and mother compensatory or deterioration effects on girls’ literature self-efficacy. Materials and Methods Participants Laible, D. J., & Carlo, G. (2004). The differential relations of maternal and paternal support and control to adolescent social competence, self-worth, and sympathy. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 759–782. doi: 10.1177/0743558403260094.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173.For hypothesis 2b, the first step of the causal steps approach showed that paternal psychological control was negatively associated with academic achievement (B-path: β = −0.18, p = 0.011). However, step two showed that paternal psychological control did not significantly predict adolescents’ goal disengagement (A-path: β = 0.11, p = 0.109). Thus, we did not proceed to test whether adolescents’ goal disengagement mediated the relation between fathers’ psychological control and academic achievement, and hypothesis 2b was not supported. Exploratory Analysis of Subscales of Parental Support and Psychological Control

Monzani, D., Steca, P., Greco, A., D’Addario, M., Pancani, L., & Cappelletti, E. (2015). Effective pursuit of personal goals: the fostering effect of dispositional optimism on goal commitment and goal progress. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 203–214. Juang, L. P., & Silbereisen, R. K. (2002). The relationship between adolescent academic capability beliefs, parenting and school grades. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 3–18.You see, everypony thought her to be unintelligent because of her “extreme interest” of muffins, her very strange speech patterns and her horrible flying. Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 1–22. doi: 10.1023/A:1009048817385. Rothermund, K., & Brandstädter, J. (2003). Coping with deficits and losses in later life: from compensatory action to accommodation. Psychology and Aging, 18(4), 896. Veas, A., Castejón, J. L., Miñano, P., & Gilar‐Corbí, R. (2019). Relationship between parent involvement and academic achievement through metacognitive strategies: A multiple multilevel mediation analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(2), 393–411.

Shek, D. T. L. (2008). Economic disadvantage, perceived family life quality, and emotional well-being in Chinese adolescents: A longitudinal study. Social Indicators Research, 85, 169–189.

Wang, M., Deng, X., & Du, X. (2018). Harsh parenting and academic achievement in Chinese adolescents: Potential mediating roles of effortful control and classroom engagement. Journal of School Psychology, 67, 16–30.