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Second, The persons who are exchanging must have full power to dispose of their products – in other words, they must be the possessors of the product which they wish to exchange. We come now to another method for increasing the relative amount of the surplus-value, the manufactory proper, a more developed form of cooperation, which became general between the middle of the sixteenth century and the end of the eighteenth. This comes from two causes. On the one side it is due to the combination of different trades, up to that point independent of each other. The manufacture of a carriage, for example, requires the work of a wheelwright, a harness-maker, a painter, etc., who all exercise their trades independently of each other. The capitalist unites them all in one trade, that of carriage-maker, in which the occupation of each becomes more limited, more specialized. The painter, for example, becomes especially a painter of carriages. On the other side the manufactory is due to the bringing together of workmen of the same trade into a single workshop, and to the division of labor made possible in this way. Thus, for instance, in the manufacture of pins, each pin is no longer made by a single workman but by several, each of whom does only a special part of the work.

Chambliss W, Zatz M (1993) Making law: the state, the law, and structural contradictions. Indiana University Press, Bloomington Kramer R (2010) Resisting the bombing of civilians: challenges from a public criminology of state crime. Soc Justice 36(3):78–97 Rothe DL (2006) The Masquerade of Abu Ghraib: state crime, torture, and international law. PhD dissertation, Department of Sociology, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo Taylor I, Walton P, Young J (1973) The new criminology: for a social theory of deviance. Harper and Row, New York

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Photographs of Jo Bonger with her son Vincent, 1892 (left); and with her grandsons Theo and Johan on her lap, 1922 (right) Credit: Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (Vincent van Gogh Foundation)

However, the group of capitalists of which we have been speaking is not the only one that gains surplus-value. Industrial capital is obliged to share the total surplus-value with commercial capital, the capital consisting of money, and that consisting of real estate. In the first place, a part of the surplus-value is claimed by commercial capital. For the economic system in force would not be able to operate without commerce. The development of capitalism has led to an extensive division of labor in the class of capitalists (banks, insurance companies, etc.) and the capital invested in these enterprises must equally have its share of the total surplus-value. Capital in the form of money plays an increasingly important part in modern capitalism, and so must have its share of the surplus-value. Bonger W (1969) Criminality and economic conditions, abridged version. Indiana University Press, Bloomington In February 1924, as the sale was concluded, Jo’s son Vincent recorded that his mother had finished the translation, “but so far no English publisher was sufficiently interested”. He then added: “No doubt the recent exhibition and the pictures in the National Gallery will stimulate… the interest in Van Gogh.” The contract is made; the proletariat on the one side furnishes the commodity – labor – and the capitalist on the other gives the equivalent of it. Now how much must be given for this commodity? In other words what is the value of the labor delivered? The value of a commodity is determined by the labor-time socially necessary for its production, in this case necessary for the proletarian and his family to live; for the workman being mortal, and capital having need of new forces, the wage must be sufficient to raise a new generation of workers. The standard of the workman’s needs is subject to variation according to time and place (the causes of which variation we need not examine here), but it is fixed for a certain country, time, and category of workers.

BONGER, Hein

Sykes G, Matza D (1957) Techniques of neutralization: a theory of delinquency. Am Sociol Rev 22:664–670 Raider of the Lost Art: "How Van Gogh’s Sister-In-Law Made Him A Renowned Painter" YouTube accessed 4 November 2022. She had been in ill-health for some time before her death, suffering from Parkinson's disease. Although ill, she continued right up to her death to manage the sales of Vincent's works. She died on 2 September 1925, at the age of 62, in her country home in Laren, Netherlands. At the time of her death, she was still engaged in translating 526 of Vincent's letters into English. In her obituary, De Proletarische Vrouw on 10 September 1925: ‘She always apologized for not being more active in the [Socialist] movement. She would say that bringing her son up properly was also a good thing to do for society. “So that has been my main work.”’ [21] Aulette JR, Michalowski RJ (1993) Fire in hamlet: a case study of state-corporate crime. In: Tunnell K (ed) Political crime in contemporary America. Garland, New York, pp 171–206

Van Gogh, Theo, Johanna van Gogh-Bonger. Brief Happiness: The Correspondence of Theo Van Gogh and Jo Bonger. W Books 2000. For certain reasons it was possible for the needs of the capitalists to be satisfied. On account of the development of the market in the cities the demand for food, and for raw materials of every kind, such as wood, wool, etc., increased, and agricultural production for the purpose of sale increased, so that the peasants began to have money. This latter fact complicated the relation between them and the feudal lords. So long as the rent was paid in kind the lord demanded only as much as he could consume; but from the day that the rent began to be paid in money the landowner began to press the peasant more and more, since money can always be used, and no one ever has enough. From this fact arose so severe an exploitation that many peasants left the country to take refuge in the towns. Van Gogh-Bonger became the key player in the growth of Vincent's posthumous fame. [1] [2] Formerly a largely unknown and marginalized figure, she is the subject of a new, full-length biography by major Van Gogh scholar Hans Luijten [3] and her life is now a focus in popular culture. A case holding photographs of Jo Bonger and Theo van Gogh (1889) Credit: Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (Vincent van Gogh Foundation) A fascinating point that emerges in the biography is the observation that Bonger switched her efforts after 1914 to promote Van Gogh’s work in Britain and the United States. Collectors there had been late to come under the artist's spell (the US angle is explored in an exhibition in Detroit, Van Gogh and America, until 22 January 2023). As Luijten puts it, Bonger placed an emphasis on Anglo-American sales in the hope that this would “stimulate curiosity about his letters”.On the other hand, Laureen Snider (1993) suggested that laws that have been set up to protect the interests of the working class are only a smokescreen designed to disguise the exploitation to which they are subjected. Examples of laws that appear to reflect the interests of the proletariat include the minimum wage, workplace safety, and anti-monopolistic regulations.

Kramer RC, Michalowski RJ (1991) State-corporate crime: case studies in organizational deviance. Unpublished manuscript At holde din bong ren er vigtigt for at sikre, at du får en god rygeoplevelse. Du kan rense din bong ved at skylle den med varmt vand og sæbe eller ved at bruge et rengøringsmiddel specielt designet til bonger. Det er også en god idé at skifte vandet i beholderen regelmæssigt og fjerne eventuelle urenheder eller rester af urter efter hver brug. Forskellige typer af bongervan Zyl Smit, D. (1989) ‘Adapting and Adopting Criminological Ideas: Criminology and Afrikaner Nationalism in South Africa’, Contemporary Crises, vol. 13, pp. 227–51. However, there is still one other way in which the surplus~value is increased, as I shall explain by what follows. Let us suppose the length of the working day to be twelve hours, and the time necessary for the production of the equivalent of the workman’s needs to be six hours. We can then represent the day as follows : Rothe DL, Kauzlarich D (2010) State-level crime: theory and policy. In: Barlow HD, Scott D (eds) Crime and public policy: putting theory to work, 2nd edn. Temple University Press, Philadelphia, pp 166–187 French pot from the south of France, of the type owned by Van Gogh, 19th century; and Gauguin’s Vincent van Gogh painting Sunflowers (December 1888) Pot: Martin Bailey, London; Gauguin: courtesy of the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam (Vincent van Gogh Foundation) 4. Why the crudely painted blue line?