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Stensmyr, Marcus C.; Hansson, Bill S. (November 2011). "A Genome Befitting a Monarch". Cell. 147 (5): 970–2. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.11.009. PMID 22118454. S2CID 16035019. Gomez, Tony (March 14, 2013). " Asclepias syriaca: Common Milkweed for Monarch Caterpillars". Monarch Butterfly Garden. MonarchButterflyGarden.net. Archived from the original on March 16, 2015 . Retrieved July 5, 2021. Homeowners are increasingly establishing butterfly gardens; monarchs can be attracted by cultivating a butterfly garden with specific milkweed species and nectar plants. Efforts are underway to establish these monarch waystations. Abugattas, Alonzo (January 3, 2017). "Monarch Way Stations". Capital Naturalist. Archived from the original on June 5, 2017 . Retrieved June 5, 2017– via Blogger. ( A. tuberosa) is the least favored by monarch caterpillars .... because it has very little toxin (cardiac glycosides) in its leaves

The monarch's white morph appeared in Oahu after the 1965–1966 introduction of two bulbul bird species, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus jocosus. These are now the most common avian insectivores in Hawaii, and probably the only ones that eat insects as large as monarchs. Although Hawaiian monarchs have low cardiac glycoside levels, the birds may also be tolerant of that toxin. The two species hunt the larvae and some pupae from the branches and undersides of leaves in milkweed bushes. The bulbuls also eat resting and ovipositing adults, but rarely flying ones. Because of its color, the white morph has a higher survival rate than the orange one. This is either because of apostatic selection (i.e., the birds have learned the orange monarchs can be eaten), because of camouflage (the white morph matches the white pubescence of milkweed or the patches of light shining through foliage), or because the white morph does not fit the bird's search image of a typical monarch, so is thus avoided. [121]Monarchs are toxic and foul-tasting because of the presence of cardenolides in their bodies, which the caterpillars ingest as they feed on milkweed. [65] Monarchs and other cardenolide-resistant insects rely on a resistant form of the Na+/ K+-ATPase enzyme to tolerate significantly higher concentrations of cardenolides than nonresistant species. [127] By ingesting a large amount of plants in the genus Asclepias, primarily milkweed, monarch caterpillars are able to sequester cardiac glycosides, or more specifically cardenolides, which are steroids that act in heart-arresting ways similar to digitalis. [128] It has been found that monarchs are able to sequester cardenolides most effectively from plants of intermediate cardenolide content rather than those of high or low content. [129] Three mutations that evolved in the monarch's Na+/ K+-ATPase were found to be sufficient together to confer resistance to dietary cardiac glycosides. [127] This was tested by swapping these mutations into the same gene in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster using CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing. These fruit flies-turned monarch flies [130] were completely resistant to dietary ouabain, a cardiac glycoside found in Apocynaceae, and even sequestered some through metamorphosis, like the monarch. [127] Breeding monarchs prefer to lay eggs on swamp milkweed ( A. incarnata). [250] [251] [252] [253] [254] [255] However, A. incarnata is an early successional plant that usually grows at the margins of wetlands and in seasonally flooded areas. The plant is slow to spread via seeds, does not spread by runners and tends to disappear as vegetative densities increase and habitats dry out. [255] [256] Although A. incarnata plants can survive for up to 20 years, most live only two-five years in gardens. The species is not shade-tolerant and is not a good vegetative competitor. [256] See also [ edit ]

In the Americas, the monarch ranges from southern Canada through northern South America. [5] It is also found in Bermuda, the Cook Islands, [67] Hawaii, [68] [69] Cuba, [70] and other Caribbean islands, [25] :18 the Solomons, New Caledonia, New Zealand, [71] Papua New Guinea, [72] Australia, the Azores, the Canary Islands, Madeira, continental Portugal, Gibraltar, [73] the Philippines, and Morocco. [74] It appears in the UK in some years as an accidental migrant. [75]

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Reproduction". Monarch Lab. Regents of the University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on July 16, 2019 . Retrieved December 13, 2014. Majewska, Ania A.; Altizer, Sonia (August 16, 2019). "Exposure to Non-Native Tropical Milkweed Promotes Reproductive Development in Migratory Monarch Butterflies". Insects. 10 (8): 253. doi: 10.3390/insects10080253. PMC 6724006. PMID 31426310. Monarch courtship occurs in two phases. During the aerial phase, a male pursues and often forces a female to the ground. During the ground phase, the butterflies copulate and remain attached for about 30 to 60 minutes. [60] Only 30% of mating attempts end in copulation, suggesting that females may be able to avoid mating, though some have more success than others. [61] [62] During copulation, a male transfers his spermatophore to a female. Along with sperm, the spermatophore provides a female with nutrition, which aids her in laying eggs. An increase in spermatophore size increases the fecundity of female monarchs. Males that produce larger spermatophores also fertilize more females' eggs. [63] Rafter, Jamie; Anurag Agruwal; Evan Preisser (2013). "Chinese mantids gut caterpillars: avoidance of prey defense?". Ecological Entomology. 38 (1): 78–82. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2311.2012.01408.x. S2CID 15029022.

First Monarch butterflies in space take flight". NBC News. December 9, 2009 . Retrieved November 12, 2023.Asclepias nivea". Butterfly gardening & all things milkweed. Archived from the original on July 7, 2015 . Retrieved July 7, 2015. a b c Karageorgi, Marianthi; Groen, Simon C.; Sumbul, Fidan; Pelaez, Julianne N.; Verster, Kirsten I.; Aguilar, Jessica M.; Hastings, Amy P.; Bernstein, Susan L.; Matsunaga, Teruyuki; Astourian, Michael; Guerra, Geno (October 2019). "Genome editing retraces the evolution of toxin resistance in the monarch butterfly". Nature. 574 (7778): 409–412. doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1610-8. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 7039281. PMID 31578524. D. p. nigrippus ( Richard Haensch, 1909) – South America - as forma: Danais[ sic] archippus f. nigrippus. Hay-Roe et al. in 2007 identified this taxon as a subspecies [24] Stimson, John; Mark Berman (1990). "Predator induced colour polymorphism in Danaus plexippus L. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Hawaii". Heredity. 65 (3): 401–406. doi: 10.1038/hdy.1990.110.

Adams, Jean Ruth (1992). Insect Potpourri: Adventures in Entomology. CRC Press. pp.28–29. ISBN 978-1-877743-09-2. U.S. Code § 319 - Landscaping and scenic enhancement". Ithaca, New York: Cornell Law School: Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on March 1, 2021 . Retrieved July 7, 2021. (c) Encouragement of Pollinator Habitat and Forage Development and Protection on Transportation Rights-of-way.—In carrying out any program administered by Secretary under this title, the Secretary shall, in conjunction with willing States, as appropriate – (1) encourage integrated vegetation management practices on roadsides and other transportation rights-of-way, including reduced mowing; and (2) encourage the development of habitat and forage for Monarch butterflies, other native pollinators, and honey bees through Oberhauser, K. S. (1989). "Effects of spermatophores on male and female monarch butterfly reproductive success". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 25 (4): 237–246. doi: 10.1007/bf00300049. S2CID 6843773.

Effects of captive-rearing on caterpillar anti-predator behavior - an inside look at some preliminary data". monarchscience. August 10, 2019 . Retrieved December 12, 2019. Howard, Elizabeth; Aschen, Harlen; Davis, Andrew K. (2010). "Citizen Science Observations of Monarch Butterfly Overwintering in the Southern United States". Psyche. 2010: 1. doi: 10.1155/2010/689301. a b Scott, James A. (1986). The Butterflies of North America. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. ISBN 0-8047-2013-4 Chip Taylor, the director of Monarch Watch at the University of Kansas, has stated that the Midwest milkweed habitat "is virtually gone" with 120–150 million acres lost. [170] [171] To help fight this problem, Monarch Watch encourages the planting of "Monarch Waystations". [156] Habitat loss due to herbicide use and genetically modified crops [ edit ]