The historical map collection has over 67,000 maps and images online. The collection includes rare 16th through 21st century maps of America, North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Pacific and the World. Vaupel, J. W., Zhang, Z., & Van Raalte, A. A. (2011). Life expectancy and disparity: An international comparison of life table data. BMJ Open, 1(1), e000128–e000128. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000128 Bergeron-Boucher, M.-P., Alvarez, J.-A., Kashnitsky, I., & Zarulli, V. (2022). Probability of males to outlive females: An international comparison from 1751 to 2020. BMJ Open, 12(8), e059964. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-059964 The gap begins at birth: newborn boys have a higher death rate than newborn girls, as they’re more vulnerable to diseases. 10 By this time the original Norse elite had intermarried with the surrounding Slav peoples and adopted Slavic names and language. Even the kings soon came to have Slav names.

Drevenstedt, G. L., Crimmins, E. M., Vasunilashorn, S., & Finch, C. E. (2008). The rise and fall of excess male infant mortality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(13), 5016–5021. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0800221105 Stalin died in 1953 and was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev. Under Khrushchev, things improved for the Russian people, but Soviet armies now occupy most of Eastern Europe, and it has imposed tight control over its satellite nations there. In 1955, it established the Warsaw Pact, to counter NATO. A movement known as the Enlightenment has gathered pace. The Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason has acted as a powerful stimulus to science, as well as to new thinking on political and social matters. It has had a deep influence on events across the Atlantic, where the founders of the new USA have designed an entire political system around Enlightenment principles. European rivalry and overseas expansion Abroad, Georgia, hard pressed by Caucasian tribesmen and Persian aggression, voluntarily submitted to Russian rule (1801). The annexation of Georgia led to Russian involvement in the Caucuses, which has gradually, but with difficulty, been falling under Russian control.Beyond the imperial frontiers, the German peoples have been experiencing a period of major upheaval, which affects the Romans through a much increased pressure on their frontiers. Roman emperors are having to spend more and more of their time on campaign. This trend will only continue, and shortly the empire – and with it the Graeco-Roman civilization it shelters – will enter its long period of decline. New religions A long period of repeated civil wars amongst leading Roman politicians and commanders, peace has been restored to the Roman world. This is largely the achievement of the young politician Octavian, son-in-law of the famous general, Julius Caesar. Octavian will shortly take the name Augustus, and be the first of the long succession of Roman emperors. By 200 BCE, however, powerful new kingdoms to the north and east overshadow the city-states of Greece. These large states have been carved out of the vast but short-lived empire of Alexander the Great, who led the Greeks on an astonishing series of conquests over the Persians and other peoples, as far as India. February 2019 - The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia officially changes its name to the Republic of North Macedonia. [4] The Roman empire has expanded considerably over the past couple of hundred years. As well as covering Italy, Spain and Portugal, and Gaul, it now takes in Britain, all the Balkans, all of North Africa, and even reaches far into central Europe.

Vladimir Canudas-Romo, Nandita Saikia, & Nadia Diamond-Smith. (2016). The contribution of age-specific mortality towards male and female life expectancy differentials in India and selected States, 1970-2013. Asia-Pacific Population Journal, 30(2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.18356/8ec0129d-en This data is compiled from three sources: the United Nations’ World Population Prospects (UN WPP), Zijdeman et al. (2015) 2, and Riley (2005) 3. For data points before 1950, we use Human Mortality Database data 4 combined with Zijdeman (2015). From 1950 onwards, we use UN WPP data. For pre-1950 data on world regions and the world as a whole, we use estimates from Riley (2005). The past century and a half have seen cultural and technological advance, and overseas expansion. The Enlightenment The Soviet Union breaks up. The countries of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Kyrgyzstan are formed. Rather than slowing down, record life expectancy has risen steadily over time, by around one year every four years. By 2021, Hong Kong had the highest life expectancy of 88 years.The Russians’ western neighbour, Poland-Lithuania, has been able to take advantage of the Russian princes’ subordination to the Golden Horde by expanding far into their territory. However, by this date the Golden Horde is in decline, with independent khanates being established in the Crimea and Kazan. To the north, the Celts now cover western Europe from Spain in the west to Britain in the north. Peoples closely related to them, both ethnically and culturally, dominate central Europe. The chart shows how the sex gap in life expectancy widened gradually over the twentieth century, largely because of the rise in smoking, especially among men. 12 Since then, it has been narrowing again in many but not all countries. 13 This period of European history has been dominated by revolution and war, and then by counter-revolution; and now European society is changed in the most radical way it has ever experienced. Pagan tribes still inhabit central, eastern and northern Europe. England is now divided amongst a group of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, with Celtic kingdoms to their north and west. Most of these have now converted to Christianity.

Over the last few centuries the coming of the Iron Age to Europe has led to a large growth in populations throughout the continent, as well as great advances in culture.

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Janssen, F. (2020). Changing contribution of smoking to the sex differences in life expectancy in Europe, 1950–2014. European Journal of Epidemiology, 35(9), 835–841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-020-00602-x New wealth has been devoted to the construction of magnificent cathedrals and churches across Europe. Some of it is also going into the foundation of new schools and universities. Learning is returning to the region. Much of this – especially in science, mathematics and medicine – is coming into Christendom from the Muslim world.

Permanyer, I., & Scholl, N. (2019). Global trends in lifespan inequality: 1950-2015. PLOS ONE, 14(5), e0215742. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215742 Partly as a reaction to the religious conflicts. a new intellectual movement is now discernible in Europe, This is the Enlightenment, which emphasises rationality as the basis for the pursuit of truth rather then beliefs received from religious institutions or royal governments. His son, Peter the Great (1689-1726), was determined to modernise (i.e. Europeanise) Russia, and set about doing so with enormous energy. He expelled Sweden from the Baltic coast (giving Russia much prized access to ice-free waters), actively encouraged commerce and industry, founded a navy, re-organized the army along modern lines, carried out a root-and-branch reform of the administration, forced the nobles to shave their beards and wear European dress, introduced western education and built a new capital on some marshland on the Gulf of Finland – St Petersburg, one of Europe’s most spectacular cities Russia’s defeat by Britain and France in the Crimean War (1854-6) led to widespread unrest at all levels of society, and the government of the present Tsar, Alexander II (1855-81), has carried out many reforms. Most notably, the serfs have been emancipated. But these measures, though well-intentioned, have been too little and too late for some. Revolutionary ideas are spreading in Russia, especially amongst the young members of the educated middle classes.This map shows the history of Europe in 30 BCE. The past two centuries have seen the power of Rome come to dominate western Europe and the Mediterranean; its empire now covers Italy, Spain, Gaul, parts of North Africa and Greece, and large parts of the Middle East. Civil wars and the rise of empire Few kingdoms in western Europe have escaped its impact. In some places (for example, France) the Church’s influence has strengthened royal power by providing religious sanctions against those who oppose it; in other places (notably Germany and Italy, both of which are wholly or partly within the Holy Roman Empire) it has gravely weakened central authority by offering religious support for rebellious nobles. In yet others ( England) the clash between royal and church power has been dramatic but indecisive. The Crusades In the Baltic region, Scandinavians were by this date active as traders, seeking the local populations in honey and furs from the great northern forests. A small merchant colony of Swedes was already established just inland from the Gulf of Finland, on the shores of Lake Lagoda